This paper reports on a research and development project set up to collect information to inform the construction of a software costing tool for Open and Distance Learning (ODL) teacher education in Africa. Data were collected in five countries in Sub-Saharan Africa (Anglophone and Francophone) where, to meet the requirements of basic education for all, governments required that large numbers of teachers undertake upgrading training programmes to enhance their teaching skills, subject knowledge and qualifications. For a range of reasons that will be explored, ODL was considered the most cost-effective way to achieve this at scale.

There are differences in the way institutions organised their ODL upgrading training provision. Yet, some trends emerge, particularly:

These trends will be reviewed with, where appropriate, the linked cost implications and reflections on how remodelling costs may inform ODL course design.

The table below provides a summary of the programmes that contributed to the project data collection:

We are grateful to staff and students in these institutions for their contributions to the project - and the many quotations in this paper.

ODL: ADVANTAGES AND CONSTRAINTS

Upgrading their qualifications through ODL enables students who are teachers in post to learn in context: their classroom practice provides a background as they work through the course materials, and learning can be applied straight away: “You can impart what you have been learning immediately,” says Deborah, a student. Justine, another student, adds “Through the course l have learnt to identify pupils with learning difficulties and how to help them better.”

The students' schools benefits from them upgrading their skills through ODL not only because they implement their learning immediately, but also because they remain in post and do not need to be replaced. Schools - and education authorities - could ill-afford to lose so many teachers to retraining: “This is where distance education [comes] in to prevent teachers from being taken out of their classrooms.” (PVC Akpanglo-Nartey, UEW).

Because ODL enables students to train in their communities, all areas of the country should benefit from a better trained and qualified teaching force and not only urban centres where universities are located and where those who attend courses at these universities tend to remain at the end of their studies. A significant proportion of students are likely to stay in their communities after their training, particularly as they have their posts and possibly families there. The Fort Hare programme was created with the stated purpose of providing all areas of the Province with the same opportunities: “We wanted to speak into the Eastern Cape context: the rural, underdeveloped, neglected corners of the Province. To take this opportunity to transform people's life.” (Extracts from a conversation between past and present Programme Directors.)

The institutions acknowledge the capacity opportunity ODL programmes provide to retrain large cohorts of teachers: “Even with our five campuses, we could not train the large number of teachers distance education enables us to train.” (PVC Akpanglo-Nartey, UEW)

ODL programmes may present a cost advantage on conventional courses (Moon, Leach & Stevens 2006, Murphy et al 2002) but the student numbers need to be high (Murphy et al 2002).

THE PROGRAMMES

Contents

All five institutions consider that ODL programmes need to be robust as they are constantly compared to traditional courses. The contents match perceived training needs and the contents of equivalent conventional programmes. They include pedagogy modules (e.g. “Education, including practical teaching”, “General methods of teaching”, or “Using group work to aid learning”), which Moon, Leach and Stevens (2006, p.20) deem indispensable in ODL teacher education to develop teaching skills and foster “demonstrable changes and improvements in classroom practice.” Students are also expected to enhance their subject knowledge, for instance in practical science, by attending special residential schools or working with a specially designed science kit. As students are teaching in schools, school experience (SE) is kept to a minimum but implementation varies from institution to institution: no SE, or one week SE prior to practical examination, or a few identified SE weeks in the students' own schools.

Programmes tend to be made up of smaller units sometimes adapted from successful face-to-face courses. The number of these units can be considerable and constitute heavy workloads for students. For example, one institution's programme consists in 48 units, each representing approximately 45 hours' study. Another programme is made up of ten distinct courses, seven carrying three credits and three carrying two credits.

“It has been hard work. I would finish my work at 3.30 p.m. and then every evening work for four or five hours on my University studies.” Agnes, student.

A significant proportion of students on all five programmes have a first teaching qualification and or at least two or three years teaching experience. Yet there is no audit or recognition of students' prior learning, experience or knowledge. This means that students will obtain their enhanced qualification well into their teaching career, up to 11 years from starting their first teaching qualification. Moon, Leach and Stevens (2006, p.26-7) consider that, when planning a new ODL continuous teacher education programme, account should be taken of prior learning, experience or knowledge. This would lessen study time and programme costs.

Teaching methods

All five ODL programmes are predominantly taught through the medium of printed study materials. Some institutions provide audio-visual materials, for instance audiocassettes or practical maths and science kits. Some resources can reflect the lecturer's own interest and skills: thus, in one institution, the science lecturer is developing a website hosted by a free provider for those training in life and earth sciences. This development does not appear to have been costed and has not yet been evaluated. There is evidence that in the future costings and costing tools will need to take account of a more diversified approach to teaching media.

While the main teaching is done through ODL materials, all five programmes have significant amounts of face-to-face tuition. One institution feels that a long residential school at the beginning of the course creates a sense of belonging in students and facilitates administrative tasks such as registration or the distribution of learning resources. More common are one or two week long residentials at regular intervals, mostly for revision and examination purposes. All programmes have frequent week-end tutorials interspersed throughout the course and which students appreciate: “They allow the tutors to get to know the students better. During the tutorial, students can air their problems; they strengthen relationships and enable interaction and group learning.” Deborah, student.

Teaching methods and contents are broadly similar but the funding dedicated to these varies: learning resources represent between 5% and 15% of overall budgets and student support between 10% and 35%.

PROFILES OF STUDENTS AND TRAINERS

Students

Besides their teaching post, some students hold other employment, like Isaac who “chose to do the [course] because it enables [him] to work at the same time as [he] studies.” ODL enables students to maintain their financial commitments and a source of income they would have to forego on a conventional course. It also saves them expenses linked with face-to-face tuition (such as cost of lodging and board) and unemployment.

The proportion of women training on the ODL programmes varies. Yet, a teacher-trainer considers that ODL “is particularly well suited to women: it enables them to fit their studies with their family and professional commitment. This explains the high proportion of women on our courses. In traditional institutions, the proportion of men is higher.”

The parity of numbers between men and women on courses can be encouraged by government policies as in Ghana. Cultural or religious traditions can be influential; in Northern Nigeria, many women train as teachers as teaching is one of the professions Muslim women can consider. In other countries, such as Senegal, the number of female students reflects the state of the education of girls: “[The low proportion of female students] is most regrettable , but reflects the fact that academic qualification is an entry requirement and to date, the schooling of girls has not matched that of boys.” ( Mr Ndiaye, director of the ENS). Until all girls access basic education in Senegal, it is unlikely the proportion of women teachers and therefore the role model they could provide will increase.

For students on all five programmes, skills and qualification upgrading means professional, economic and social enhancement. In all five countries, “their salary will improve, their status will improve” (PVC Akpanglo-Nartey, UEW) and in Senegal, “success at the end of their training is the gateway to civil servant status.” (Mr Diallo, director of CÆRENAD, ENS)

Students on ODL programmes can therefore improve their teaching skills and advance professionally, socially and economically without abandoning the classroom, other paid employment or family commitments. “This has significant implications for [their] well-being, for the continuity of education throughout the Education system.” (Murphy et al 2002, p.33).

Trainers

In all five cases, trainers belong to two broad categories: those who work at the headquarters of the organisation (whom we will call the Course Team (CT) whether it is an actual course team as in four institutions, or departments providing central services to the programme (one institution)), and the tutors who work in the field, supporting the students directly. When student numbers are very large, there are intermediary staffs organised in a hierarchical structure to ensure effective liaison between CTs and, tutors and students.

On all programmes, the CTs are charged with writing the ODL materials, for which they received training from institutions experienced in ODL course writing. For example, members of the CT at the ENS worked with CÆRENAD which, under the leadership of the Télé Université de Québec, involved institutions from Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica and Mauritius, so a high level of international collaborative learning. Fort Hare developed its programme using its links with the Open University in the UK. In two institutions, materials production involves the CT in editing, graphic design and typesetting.

CT members can also contribute to the everyday delivery of the programme and its assessment: they lecture and lead workshops at residential schools. In one institution, they take tutorials and in another monitor a significant piece of coursework directly and can be contacted by students one afternoon a week. They can set and mark examinations and even collate students' assignment and assessment results.

This wide range of activities means that their workloads are extremely heavy and on occasions, this has repercussions on feedback to students and can impact on student motivation.

Trained and monitored by CT members, tutors are at the heart of the student support system in all institutions. They are highly qualified and have a proven record in face-to-face tuition. The name ODL tutors are given in Fort Hare reflects the ODL tutor mission; they are called `abakhwezeli': people whose job was to `keep the fire burning just right so that the food in the pot would cook well'. In other words, they have a key role to play in keeping students motivated by guiding them through materials, marking assignments, providing formative feedback and leading tutorials. During tutorials, they should not teach but facilitate discussions on issues arising from the ODL materials. In two institutions, they also visit students in schools. Overall, their role is crucial and valued by students. “Our tutors are always here when we need them.” Deborah, student.

It could be argued that some CTs are involved in tasks that different personnel could fulfil. Using a costing tool would help to model the restructuring of CTs and or the employment and training of different categories of staff to carry out some these tasks and thus reduce the CT members' workloads and - possibly - some of the high programme resources cost that can represent 60% or 80% of the overall budget.

MONITORING, EVALUATION AND TRACKING OF STUDENTS' ACHIEVEMENTS AND PROGRESS

Assessment and evaluation of students' achievement and progress is vital to promoting the profile of ODL courses, as “standards must be seen to match or exceed those of traditional education.” (Calvert 2006, p.2). There is a perceived need for assessment in ODL programmes to be extremely rigorous. And rigorous and demanding it is, of students and staff alike. In the programme with 48 units, each unit has a final examination (60% of the final grade), two timed invigilated tests (25%) and two assignments (15%). In another institution, over the three years of the programme, there are 111 assignments and 30 examinations. Yet, the assessment system of another institution enables students on both the conventional and ODL programmes to undertake exactly the same summative assessment. This ensures full comparability - and real savings for the institution.

In institutions where assessment procedures are heavy, marking represents a significant workload for staff, particularly where only central academic staffs mark examinations: lecturers who teach on up to three courses per year may mark between 6000 and 7000 papers in any one year of the programme. This proves extremely costly in staff workload and in monetary terms: in some institutions, assessment costs nearly trebles those of student support.

This can also cause important delays in students receiving formative feedback or even the results of their final assessment and may cause some students to postpone their studies.

Students strewn across wide areas, marking delays, students dropping in and out of the programme for a variety of reasons make the tracking of those enrolled, on a study break, withdrawn or graduated difficult. Yet, this tracking is crucial for institutions to plan resources and costings accurately. Multiple small courses, long programme times, over-assessment and training in the appropriate use of new technologies need to be considered when addressing this issue.

NEW TECHNOLOGIES

Computers are used for administrative purposes, production of materials and tracking of students.

As noted previously, most of the learning resources are printed materials. Apart from examples of audiocassettes and one institution having developed a website for its science students, new technologies appear to be as yet little used by students for learning. Nonetheless, there are indications that CTs are looking to diversifying the range of learning resources. For instance two institutions are acquiring or have a recording studio, and it is likely that sound and video materials may become more readily available.

The use of computers in teacher development is very much in its infancy in all five institutions. Two of them are exploring the possibility of providing computers for ODL students in all regional centres. In Senegal all upper secondary schools have a computer room and the lower secondary schools computer park is expanding rapidly. Students working in these schools can use these computers.

Resolving the problem of access to computers is important. It is equally crucial to plan how the use of new technologies will be built into the programmes and how it will contribute to student learning. As Murphy et al (2002, p.18) point out, “The main caution for distance education and ICT for teacher development programs is one of effectiveness.”

Institutions that are considering introducing computers in their courses are aware of the training issues for the staff that support the students. They also recognise that costing the use of ICT is not limited to the purchase of hardware and software: “Peripherals, software, network infrastructure, support and maintenance, and training are critical additional costs.” (Murphy et al 2002, p. 32)

QUALITY ASSURANCE

According to Calvert (2206, p.2) “frank and assiduous monitoring and evaluation, and improvements following from the results, are critical to the long term success of ODL initiatives.” Quality assurance (QA) exists and is costed in all five institutions but is at different levels of evolution and sophistication. At the one end of the spectrum, one institution had just centralised its QA procedures and created a new QA unit to evaluate all courses, including the ODL programme, in each department on an annual basis. At the other end of the spectrum, one institution has a long established and clearly documented QA system. Most QA procedures invite students to provide user feedback at the end of their course and also consider the pass rates.

There is evidence that action is taken as a result of QA: one institution is considering various course models in an attempt to reduce students' workloads. Another institution is investigating a piece of software to provide better tracking of students.

CONCLUSION

The programmes that contributed to our research have much in common in terms of their contents, teaching methods including the use of ICT, staffing, assessment and QA. But they have distributed their funding very differently, some favouring student support, others assessment procedures or course team operations. Analysis and remodelling using a costing tool may enable institutions to address some of the issues they have shared with us. Costing tools must allow this sort of analysis and modelling.

Significant in all five programmes is the role ODL and school-based related learning play in enabling students to increase their professional, social and economical status without interrupting children's education in schools and in contributing to achieving the stated goal of increasing teacher supply to meet the countries' needs.

“[…] the bricks and mortar institutions of teacher education created to meet the needs of the twentieth century will be insufficient to meet the needs of the present century. Existing such institutions will have a role. But it will change. The emphasis must move to school based rather than college based training solutions…” (Moon 2004)

GLOSSARY

CÆRENAD Centre d'Application, d'Etudes et de Resources en Apprentissage à Distance = Centre for the Application, Study and Resources for Distance Training

Education authority name given in this paper to governmental or regional departments in charge of deployment of teachers

PVC Pro Vice Chancellor

Students name given to those attending the CPD programmes considered in this paper

REFERENCES

Calvert, J. (2006), “ Open and Distance Learning Foundations: Lessons and Issues For Development ”, The Fourth Pan Commonwealth on Open Learning, retrieved July 20, 2006 from http://pcf4.dec.uwi.edu/overview.php#themes ,

Moon, B. (2004), “ Open Learning and ICTs: A radical solution to preparing teachers to meet the Universal Basic Education (UBE) Challenge ”, Paper presented at Third Pan-Commonwealth Forum on Open Learning, Dunedin, New Zealand 4 th -8 th July, 2004

Moon, B., Leach, J. and Stevens, M.-P. (2006), Open and Distance Learning for Teacher Education in Africa: Innovation and Change, a toolkit for Education Policy Planners and Teacher Educators in Sub Saharan Africa , The World Bank

Murphy, P., Anzalone, S., Bosch, A. and Moulton, J. (2002), Enhancing Learning Opportunities in Africa, Distance Education and Information and Communication Technologies for Learning, Human development Sector , Africa Region, The World Bank

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